Gas y electricidad. La evolución de su tecnología a partir de los artículos y noticias aparecidas en publicaciones periódicas de carácter técnico en España y Francia entre 1855 y 1910 / Gas and electricity. The evolution of its technology based on the papers and news appeared in periodical technical publications in spain and france between 1855 and 1910

Tanto el proceso de obtención del gas de hulla como los fenómenos eléctricos fueron estudiados de una forma metódica a partir del siglo XVIII. Pero, fue a principio del siglo siguiente que el gas empezó a utilizarse en el alumbrado, y años después, en desarrollar trabajo mecánico, o en calentar fluidos. En el último tercio del siglo, el desarrollo de la electricidad fue sustituyendo algunas de las aplicaciones que proporcionaba el gas. Este proceso quedó reflejado en una gran cantidad de escritos y publicaciones que difundieron los nuevos conceptos y las formas de obtención y de utilización de estas fuentes. En este artículo mostramos los resultados de un estudio cuantitativo de los artículos sobre gas y electricidad en la literatura industrial en un periodo en que los caminos de ambas fuentes empezaban a divergir. Como ejemplo nos detenemos también en dos casos concretos: algunos procedimientos alternativos de producción de gas y el auge de la electricidad.(AU)

Both the process of obtaining coal gas and electrical phenomena were studied in a methodical way from the eighteenth century. But it was at the beginning of the following century that gas began to be used in lighting, and years later, in developing mechanical work, or in heating fluids. In the last third of the century, the development of electricity was replacing some of the applications that gas provided. This process was reflected in many writings and publications that spread the new concepts and the ways of obtaining and using these sources. In this article we show the results of a quantitative study of the articles on gas and electricity in the industrial literature in a period when the paths of both sources were beginning to diverge. As an example, we also look at two specific cases: some alternative gas production procedures and the electricity boom.(AU)

El diccionario de especialidad como instrumento de comunicación científica: el ejemplo de la electricidad (1880-1910) / The specialty dictionary as an instrument of scientific communication: the example of electricity (1880-1910)

En este artículo se ofrece un panorama de los diccionarios de electricidad publi-cados en Europa entre 1880 y 1910, etapa en que esta disciplina y sus aplicaciones técnicas e industriales experimentaron un importante desarrollo. En particular, se atiende a los repertorios que circularon en España, tanto en su lengua original como sobre todo traducidos, pues su autoría correspondió mayoritariamente a ingenieros franceses, ingleses y alemanes: Jacquez (1883), Dumont (1889), Houston (1889), Lefèvre (1891), O’Conor Sloane (1892), Hospitalier (1900), Deinhardt y Schlomann (1908), etc. Asimismo, se presta atención a otros diccionarios técnicos de autor español, como los de Clairac (1877-1908) o Camps y Armet (1888), en cuyas páginas está especialmente presente el tecnicismo eléctrico. El acercamiento a este conjunto de diccionarios pone manifiesto el papel que correspondió a los distintos repertorios de espe-cialidad en el proceso de comunicación y divulgación científica de la época, y permite señalar la existencia de discursos complementarios, reflejo de variadas situaciones comunicativas (la que se da en el seno de la comunidad científica, en el mundo técnico e industrial, entre la comunidad técnica y científica y el lector profano...), que hablan asimismo de cómo se resuelve en ellos la tensión entre lengua y ciencia (AU)

Leo Fabian: A Life of Accomplishment.

Leo Fabian played a role in many anesthesia firsts: the first halothane anesthetics in the United States, the first American electrical anesthetic, the first lung allotransplant, and the first heart xenotransplant. As was common for men of his generation, Fabian's first taste of medicine came during World War II, as a pharmacist's mate aboard the U.S.S. Bountiful. Afterward, he pursued his medical education before joining Dr. C. Ronald Stephen and the anesthesiology department at Duke. There he helped to create one of the first inhalers for halothane, the Fabian Newton Stephen (F-N-S) Fluothane Vaporizer. Fabian left Duke for the University of Mississippi Medical Center, where he consistently worked with the chair of surgery, Dr. James Hardy. Together they performed the first American electrical anesthetic, the first lung allotransplant, and the first heart xenotransplant. By the end of his time at Mississippi, Fabian and Hardy had several philosophical disagreements, and Fabian ultimately left for Washington University in St. Louis, where he rejoined Dr. Stephen. He served as Stephen's right-hand man and would oversee the department when Stephen was away. Fabian spent the final years of his career as chair of the department before his own health forced him to step down.

In pursuit of accurate timekeeping: Liverpool and Victorian electrical horology.

This paper explores how nineteenth-century Liverpool became such an advanced city with regard to public timekeeping, and the wider impact of this on the standardisation of time. From the mid-1840s, local scientists and municipal bodies in the port city were engaged in improving the ways in which accurate time was communicated to ships and the general public. As a result, Liverpool was the first British city to witness the formation of a synchronised clock system, based on an invention by Robert Jones. His method gained a considerable reputation in the scientific and engineering communities, which led to its subsequent replication at a number of astronomical observatories such as Greenwich and Edinburgh. As a further key example of developments in time-signalling techniques, this paper also focuses on the time ball established in Liverpool by the Electric Telegraph Company in collaboration with George Biddell Airy, the Astronomer Royal. This is a particularly significant development because, as the present paper illustrates, one of the most important technologies in measuring the accuracy of the Greenwich time signal took shape in the experimental operation of the time ball. The inventions and knowledge which emerged from the context of Liverpool were vital to the transformation of public timekeeping in Victorian Britain.

The pedagogical implications of Maxwellian electromagnetic models: a case study from Victorian-Era physics.

In the late Victorian Era, a group of British physicists devoted their time to interpreting and extending the work of James Clerk Maxwell. There has been considerable discussion about the ways in which these "Maxwellian" physicists used mechanical models by in the for research purposes; less attention has been paid to the relevance of their mechanical models for pedagogical purposes. Drawing from educational research literature, I begin from the premise that understanding a scientist's self-identity in its historical context is crucial to understanding how she or he enacts particular pedagogical approaches. I aim to extend Bruce Hunt's seminal work on the Maxwellians by providing a pedagogical analysis of one of Sir Oliver Lodge's lectures. In so doing, I claim that Lodge drew on his identity as a Maxwellian as an organizing framework for his lecture and that he attempted to engage his audience in Maxwellian thought by exposing them to many mechanical models. I conclude that Lodge's self-concept as a teacher and his apparent broad appeal as a public educationist were deeply embedded in his life history as a member of the Maxwellians. Sir Oliver Lodge's identities as a Maxwellian and a pedagogue are inextricably linked.

[Nikola Tesla: flashes of inspiration]. / Nikola Tesla: relampagos de inspiracion.

TITLE: Nikola Tesla: relampagos de inspiracion.

Alexander von Humboldt: galvanism, animal electricity, and self-experimentation part 2: the electric eel, animal electricity, and later years.

After extensive experimentation during the 1790s, Alexander von Humboldt remained skeptical about "animal electricity" (and metallic electricity), writing instead about an ill-defined galvanic force. With his worldview and wishing to learn more, he studied electric eels in South America just as the new century began, again using his body as a scientific instrument in many of his experiments. As had been the case in the past and for many of the same reasons, some of his findings with the electric eel (and soon after, Italian torpedoes) seemed to argue against biological electricity. But he no longer used galvanic terminology when describing his electric fish experiments. The fact that he now wrote about animal electricity rather than a different "galvanic" force owed much to Alessandro Volta, who had come forth with his "pile" (battery) for multipling the physical and perceptable effects of otherwise weak electricity in 1800, while Humboldt was deep in South America. Humboldt probably read about and saw voltaic batteries in the United States in 1804, but the time he spent with Volta in 1805 was probably more significant in his conversion from a galvanic to an electrical framework for understanding nerve and muscle physiology. Although he did not continue his animal electricity research program after this time, Humboldt retained his worldview of a unified nature and continued to believe in intrinsic animal electricity. He also served as a patron to some of the most important figures in the new field of electrophysiology (e.g., Hermann Helmholtz and Emil du Bois-Reymond), helping to take the research that he had participated in to the next level.

Alexander von Humboldt: galvanism, animal electricity, and self-experimentation part 1: formative years, naturphilosophie, and galvanism.

During the 1790s, Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), who showed an early interest in many facets of natural philosophy and natural history, delved into the controversial subject of galvanism and animal electricity, hoping to shed light on the basic nature of the nerve force. He was motivated by his broad worldview, the experiments of Luigi Galvani, who favored animal electricity in more than a few specialized fishes, and the thinking of Alessandro Volta, who accepted specialized fish electricity but was not willing to generalize to other animals, thinking Galvani's frog experiments flawed by his use of metals. Differing from many German Naturphilosophen, who shunned "violent" experiments, the newest instruments, and detailed measurement, Humboldt conducted thousands of galvanic experiments on animals and animal parts, as well as many on his own body, some of which caused him great pain. He interpreted his results as supporting some but not all of the claims made by both Galvani and Volta. Notably, because of certain negative findings and phenomenological differences, he remained skeptical about the intrinsic animal force being qualitatively identical to true electricity. Hence, he referred to a "galvanic force," not animal electricity, in his letters and publications, a theoretical position he would abandon with Volta's help early in the new century.

[Nikola Tesla: flashes of inspiration]. / Nikola Tesla: relampagos de inspiracion.

Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) was one of the greatest inventors in history and a key player in the revolution that led to the large-scale use of electricity. He also made important contributions to such diverse fields as x-rays, remote control, radio, the theory of consciousness or electromagnetism. In his honour, the international unit of magnetic induction was named after him. Yet, his fame is scarce in comparison with that of other inventors of the time, such as Edison, with whom he had several heated arguments. He was a rather odd, reserved person who lived for his inventions, the ideas for which came to him in moments of inspiration. In his autobiography he relates these flashes with a number of neuropsychiatric manifestations, which can be seen to include migraine auras, synaesthesiae, obsessions and compulsions.

Nikola Tesla: relámpagos de inspiración / Nikola Tesla: flashes of inspiration

Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) fue uno de los principales inventores de la historia, hombre clave en la revolución que supuso el empleo de la electricidad a gran escala. Realizó también aportaciones en campos tan diversos como los rayos X, el control remoto, la radio, la teoría de la conciencia o el electromagnetismo. Como homenaje, la unidad internacional de inducción magnética recibió su nombre. Sin embargo, su fama es escasa en comparación con la de otros inventores de la época, como Edison, con quien sostuvo enconadas disputas. Persona peculiar y huraña, vivía para unos inventos que concebía a base de momentos de inspiración, que relaciona en su autobiografía con diversas manifestaciones neuropsiquiátricas, entre las que se pueden reconocer auras migrañosas, sinestesias, obsesiones y compulsiones (AU)

Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) was one of the greatest inventors in history and a key player in the revolution that led to the large-scale use of electricity. He also made important contributions to such diverse fields as x-rays, remote control, radio, the theory of consciousness or electromagnetism. In his honour, the international unit of magnetic induction was named after him. Yet, his fame is scarce in comparison with that of other inventors of the time, such as Edison, with whom he had several heated arguments. He was a rather odd, reserved person who lived for his inventions, the ideas for which came to him in moments of inspiration. In his autobiography he relates these flashes with a number of neuropsychiatric manifestations, which can be seen to include migraine auras, synaesthesiae, obsessions and compulsions (AU)

The lady and the eel: how Aphra Behn introduced Europeans to the "numb eel".

Aphra Behn (1640-1689) has been called the first professional British female writer. Behn probably visited Surinam in the 1660s, but it was not until 1688 that she wrote Oroonoko: or, The Royal Slave, the novel for which she is best remembered. Although overlooked by historians of science, Oroonoko provided a description of the "numb eel," effectively introducing many Europeans to the exotic and frightening creature that would become known as the "electric eel" during the second half of the 1700s, when it would play a central role in showing the reality of animal electricity, effectively putting neuromuscular physiology on its more modern course. This article examines Behn's early life, including why she might have gone to Surinam, the sources that might have helped her write her colorful description of the eel, and how what she had written circulated widely and continued to contribute to the changing scientific landscape after her death.

How electricity was discovered and how it is related to cardiology.

We relate the fundamental stages of the long road leading to the discovery of electricity and its uses in cardiology. The first observations on the electromagnetic phenomena were registered in ancient texts; many Greek and Roman writers referred to them, although they provided no explanations. The first extant treatise dates back to the XIII century and was written by Pierre de Maricourt during the siege of Lucera, Italy, by the army of Charles of Anjou, French king of Naples. There were no significant advances in the field of magnetism between the appearance of this treatise and the publication of the study De magnete magneticisque corporibus (1600) by the English physician William Gilbert. Scientists became increasingly interested in electromagnetic phenomena occurring in certain fish, i.e., the so-called electric ray that lived in the South American seas and the Torpedo fish that roamed the Mediterranean Sea. This interest increased in the 18th century, when condenser devices such as the Leyden jar were explored. It was subsequently demonstrated that the discharges produced by "electric fish" were of the same nature as those produced in this device. The famous "controversy" relating to animal electricity or electricity inherent to an animal's body also arose in the second half of the 18th century. The school of thought of the physicist Volta sustained the principle of a single electrical action generated by metallic contact. This led Volta to invent his electric pile, considered as the first wet cell battery. Toward the middle of the XIX century, the disciples of the physiologist Galvani were able to demonstrate the existence of animal electricity through experiments exploring the so-called current of injury. On the path of Volta's approach, many characteristics of electricity were detailed, which ultimately led to their usage in the industrial field. The route followed by Galvani-Nobili-Matteucci led to the successes of Waller, Einthoven, etcetera, enabling the modern conquests of electro-vectorcardiography.

How electricity was discovered and how it is related to cardiology / Cómo se llegó al descubrimiento de la electricidad y su utilización en cardiología

We relate the fundamental stages of the long road leading to the discovery of electricity and its uses in cardiology. The first observations on the electromagnetic phenomena were registered in ancient texts; many Greek and Roman writers referred to them, although they provided no explanations. The first extant treatise dates back to the XIII century and was written by Pierre de Maricourt during the siege of Lucera, Italy, by the army of Charles of Anjou, French king of Naples. There were no significant advances in the field of magnetism between the appearance of this treatise and the publication of the study De magnete magneticisque corporibus (1600) by the English physician William Gilbert. Scientists became increasingly interested in electromagnetic phenomena occurring in certain fish, i.e., the so-called electric ray that lived in the South American seas and the Torpedo fish that roamed the Mediterranean Sea. This interest increased in the 18th century, when condenser devices such as the Leyden jar were explored. It was subsequently demonstrated that the discharges produced by ''electric fish'' were of the same nature as those produced in this device. The famous ''controversy'' relating to animal electricity or electricity inherent to an animal's body also arose in the second half of the 18th century. The school of thought of the physicist Volta sustained the principle of a single electrical action generated by metallic contact. This led Volta to invent his electric pile, considered as the first wet cell battery. Toward the middle of the XIX century, the disciples of the physiologist Galvani were able to demonstrate the existence of animal electricity through experiments exploring the so-called current of injury. On the path of Volta's approach, many characteristics of electricity were detailed, which ultimately led to their usage in the industrial field. The route followed by Galvani-Nobili-Matteucci led to the successes of Waller, Einthoven, etcetera, enabling the modern conquests of electro-vectorcardiography.

Se relatan las etapas fundamentales del largo camino que llevó al descubrimiento de la electricidad y su utilización en cardiología. Las primeras observaciones de fenómenos electromagnéticos se realizaron en la antigüedad clásica y se señalaron por autores griego-romanos, aunque no podían ser interpretados correctamente. Sólo en el siglo XIII apareció un escrito de Pierre de Maricourt, redactado durante el sitio de Lucera, en Italia Meridional, por las huestes de Carlos de Anjou, rey francés de Nápoles. Entre la redacción de este ensayo y la publicación del tratado De magnete magneticisque corporibus (1600) por el médico inglés William Gilbert, no hubo avances importantes en el campo del electromagnetismo. Pero los investigadores comenzaron a interesarse en los fenómenos electromagnéticos que se producían en ciertos peces, por ejemplo la llamada anguila eléctrica, que vivía en los mares de Sudamérica, y también en el pez Torpedo morador del mar Mediterráneo. Tal interés aumentó a mediados del siglo XVIII, cuando se elaboraron condensadores del tipo de la llamada botella de Leyden. Pudo demostrarse, por tanto, que las descargas de los ''peces eléctricos'' son del mismo tipo de las que pueden producirse en dicho aparato. En la segunda mitad del siglo mencionado, se originó la famosa ''controversia'' acerca de la llamada electricidad animal, o sea de la electricidad inherente al cuerpo de animales. La línea de los investigadores de la escuela del físico Volta, sustentaba la existencia de la sola electricidad ''de contacto'' entre cables metálicos. Esto llevó a su jefe a lograr el invento de la pila eléctrica. Los discípulos del fisiólogo Galvani llegaron a demostrar hacia mediados del siglo XIX, la existencia de una verdadera electricidad animal en forma de corriente de lesión. Por el camino de Volta, se llegó a detectar muchas características de la electricidad, lo que permitió su utilización esencialmente en campo industrial. Por la vía Galvani-Nobili-Matteucci, se llegó a los éxitos de Waller, Einthoven, entre otros, lo que hizo posible lograr las modernas conquistas de la electrovectocardiografía.